Production Of Speech Sounds English Language Essay

Production Of Speech Sounds incline Language EssayThe output of public lecture sounds involves deuce essential comp sensationnts initiating a flow of air in and through the blunt tract Some method of shaping or articulating the air-stream so as to generate a specific type of sound vocalism A third component, present in close to, scarcely non all sounds phonation. installationInitiators lungs in English the only initiator (in new(prenominal) languages also unlikable glottis or tongue (combined with velar closure).Lungs sponges that can fill in with the air, contained within the costa cage. The expiratory air stream is further processed to bronchi, then to trachea/windpipe and then the larynx1. The space among the vocal cords/vocal folds is the glottis.ArticulationOrgans actuateicipating in occasion be called articulators (above the larynx) Pharynx2 a tube stretching from above the larynx, its top end is gived into dickens split One part being the back of the mout h The otherwise part beginning off the counselling through the nasal pitfall. In the action of English sounds it serves mainly as a container of a volume of air that is set into vibration in accordance with the vocal folds vibration3 Oral cavity plays the most important role. It is within the oral cavity that the greatest variety of articulatory motions put acrosss.The articulatory electronic organs in the mouthi/ passive the maxilla, the teeth, the alveolar ridge, the hard palate.ii/ active the jaw, the lower lip, the soft palate. The velum/soft palate raised (the airflow cannot escape through the nose) or lowered a (the air passes through the nose). The most active organ in the mouth is the tongue. The tongue the tip (apex), the blade (dorsum) and the root (radix).The outer end of the mouth is provided with the stop design and lower lip.The vibration of the vocal folds inside the larynx/ phonate box produces the sound of voice and this process is called phonation. The larynx is situated in the neck. It has several parts its main structure is made of cartilage (material similar to bone but less hard). The larynx consists of four cartilages1 cartilago thyreoidea2 cartilago cricoidea3 cartilagines arytenoideae4 epiglottis blanket the entrance into the larynxInside the larynx in that location atomic tot 18 vocal folds (two thick flaps of muscle sooner like a pair of lips). At the front the vocal folds argon joined together and fixed to the inside of the thyroid cartilage. At the back they argon attached to a pair of small-scale cartilages called arytenoid cartilages, so that if the arytenoid cartilages move, the vocal folds go away move too. The arytenoid cartilages are attached to the top of the cricoid cartilage but they can move so as to move the vocal folds apart or together. The term glottis is used to refer to the pass arounding between the vocal folds.States of the glottis1. Not vibrating1) If the vocal folds are most together and t hey part afterward the last-place phase of articulation Voiceless Plosives2) If the vocal folds are loosely open, no vibration, no voice is produced Voiceless Fricatives and Affricates are produced.3) If the vocal folds are held closely only in their front part, the cartilage-like part is set apart Glottal Fricative (the sound /h/) is produced.2. VibratingFurther tapered of the glottis brings it into position for the production of voice.The vocal folds can be held closely together and vibrate. This produces tones / vowel sounds.The vocal folds can be loosely together and their vibration is weak. This produces Voiced Plosives, Affricates and Fricatives.The number of bouts of opening and closing the glottis per heartbeat is referred to as the fundamental frequency of voice (Hz). A single cycle happens in the region of 1/100th second, therefore, the cycle repeats at the rates in the region of between approximately 80-200 cycles per second. This rate is far too rapid for the hum an ear to be able to secern each individual opening /closing of the folds. However, human ear is able to perceive variations in the overall rate of vibration as changes in the pitch of the voice4. The vibration averages roughly between 200 and 300 times per second in a womans voice and about half that rate in adult men.Acoustic aspectSound is rowed by means of the vibration of air molecules and is transmitted in sound waves in all directions. The voice comes into existence on the basis of vocal folds vibration. The periodic vibration gives rise to tone, whereas aperiodic vibration results in the production of noise.The tone is characterized by three canonic qualitiesThe pitch given by the frequency of the vibrations in cps. The pitch is in direct proportion to the number of cps and in indirect proportion to the cycles period.The transport is the amount of energy transmitted through the air. It is related to the amplitude of vibration. The intensity is proportionate to the squ are of the amplitude.The timbre is given by the composition of the tone. Simple tones are non existent because any object vibrates not only as a whole but also in its individual parts. The vocal folds vibrate in such a manner that in addition to the fundamental frequency (a grassroots vibration over their length) they produce a number of overtones or harmonics which are simple multiples of the fundamental or start-off harmonic. The combination of these components makes up the acoustic spectrum. A visible recording of vernacular is produced by computer analysis and it refers to the interest dimensionsTime / duration on the horizontal axis, given in msFrequency on the vertical axis, given in cycles per secondIntensity indicated by relative blackness of the markings.The component bands are called formants and are numbered from bottom upwards. It is the first two formants (F1 and F2) that contribute most to the distinctive character of the vowels. From articulatory point of weigh F1 is correlated with tongue height (the pharyngeal formant), F2 with front-to-back tongue placing (the oral formant).Auditory aspectThe perception of a sound is mediated by the brain rather than by ear itself. The ear has three major travelsTo collect stimuliTo transmit themTo analyze them.The upper limit of frequency which can be perceived is maximal 20, 000 cps.The ear is subdivided into the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear. The outer ear leads to the ear drum. The middle ear is a small air-filled cavity containing a chain of three tiny bones connected to the ear drum at one end and the inner ear at the other. The main part of the inner ear is the cochlea shaped like a snails shell whose function is to convert sound vibrations into nerve impulses. Speech sounds are perceived in wrong of four categories (pitch, loudness, quality and length). The categories are discomfitive and must not be equated exactly with the related physiological and physical categories.Consona nts Plosives, Fortis LenisThe differences between vowels and consonants are in the management they are produced (vowels voices, consonants noises) vowels fulfill the role of the peak of the syllable whereas consonants fulfill the marginal function..Classification of consonants see Chart of Consonants (P. Roach, p.62). It is customary to divide consonants into several groups according to several criteria. The most important are According to their place of articulation According to their manner of articulationA/ Classification according to the manner of articulation The articulators involved form a closure /p, t, k/ /b, d, g /. The consonants produced in this way are called Stops/Plosives. The articulators involved form a narrowing (as for /f, v, s, z, , , , , h/). The consonants produced in this way are called Fricatives. The articulators form a closure combined with a narrowing (as for t, d). The consonants produced in this way are called Affricates.Plosives As for place of art iculation bilabial, apico-alveolar, velar. Plosives four phases (approach, hold, release, post-release).DistributionsAll the three plosives in all positions initial, medial and closing.Initial position CVIn /p, t, k/ during the transition to voiced sound the unfastened glottis takes many time to close sufficiently so that the vocal folds can start vibrating, consequently there is a period of voicelessness aspiration (puff of air). terminal position VCThe syllables closed by voiceless consonants are considerably compacter than those that are open, or closed by voiced consonants.FricativesThey include /f, , s, v, , z, h/.Manner of articulation Two organs are brought and held sufficiently close together for the escaping air-stream to produce strong friction. This friction may or may not be attended by voice.A/ Place of articulation/f, v/ labiodental/,/ dental/s, z/ alveolar/, / palato-alveolar/h/- glottalLength of the preceding soundThe value of the final exam /f, , s, v, , z/ is determined by the length of the syllable which they close. Dental fricatives /, ///spelling always thdistribution expression initial, word medial, word final word initial clusters, word final clusters//spelling always thdistribution word initial, word medial, word final word initial clusters /d/ does not occur in initial clusters, word final clustersManner place of articulationThe tip of the tongue makes a light contact with the edge and inner develop of the upper front teeth. With some vocalizers the tongue-tip may protrude through the teeth.AffricatesAffricates are complex consonants, beginning as plosives and ending as fricatives (Roach).Palato-alveolar Affricates /t, d//t/ when final in syllable effect of reducing the length of the preceding sounds.NasalsBilabial nasal /m/Alveolar nasal //Velar nasal // (spellings ng or n followed by a letter indicating a velar consonant tongue, anxious)distribution word medial singer, hanger, anxiety word medial + g finger, angle, angry, aridity word medial + k anchor, monkey, donkey word final sing, wrong, tongue word final + k sink, rank word final syllabic bacon, taken, organRoach rules for the pronunciation of the nk and ng digraphs in nk the /k/ is always pronounced in ng the following /g/ is pronounced in mono-morphemic run-in (finger, anger, linger) and in comparatives superlatives of adjectives (younger, the longest) otherwise the /g/ following the // is never pronouncedLateralsArticulatory features articulated by means of a partial closure, on one or both(prenominal) sides of which the air-stream is able to escape through the mouth. Only one, alveolar, lateral consonant occurs in E. Within the /l/ phoneme 3 main variants occura/ clear /l/, with a relatively front vowel resonance, before vowels and /j/ Roach /i/ resonanceb/ voiceless /l/ following accented (aspirated) /p, k/ (less considerable devoicing after /f, s, /, or weakly accented /p, t, k/)c/ dark /l/, with a relatively back vowel reso nance, finally after a vowel, before a consonant, and as a syllabic sound following a consonant Roach u resonanceClear /l/ the front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate at the akin time as the tip contact is made. Dark /l/ the front of the tongue somewhat depressed and the back raised in the direction of the soft palate.Approximants/r/Distribution word initial (red, raw), word medial, intervocalic (mirror, very), word final /r-link/ (far away, poor old man) in consonantal clusters (price, crow)Manner place of articulation the tip of the tongue held in a position near to, but not touching, the rear part of the alveolar ridge. Lip position according to the following vowel.BBC /r/ distribution only before a vowel./j/ palatal/w/ labio-velarEnglish vowels short vowels long vowelsVowels are specified in terms of 3 parameters vertical tongue position (high low close half-close half-open open) horizontal tongue position (front back) lip-position (unro unded rounded)In accented syllables the so-called long vowels are fully long when they are final or in a syllable closed by a voiced consonant, but they are considerably shortened when they occur in a syllable closed by a voiceless consonant. The very(prenominal) considerable shortening before fortis consonants applies also to the diphthongs.DiphthongsThe sequences of vocalic elements included under the term diphthong are those which form a glide within one syllable. They render a 1st element (the starting point) and a 2nd element (the point in the direction of which the glide is made).BBC diphthongs1st element is in the command region of /, e, a, , , /2nd element is in the general region of /, , / division into closing (direction towards /, / and centering (direction towards //.Generalizations referring to all RP diphthongs1/ Most of the length and filter associated with the glide is concentrated on the 1st element, the 2nd one is only lightly sounded in Slovak the ratio betw een the lengths of the two elements11, in English it is approximately 212/ They are equivalent in length to long vowels and are subject to the same variations in length in the reduced forms there is a considerable shortening of the 1st element3/ No diphthong occurs before // phonics PhonologyPhonetics phonology are the two linguistic sciences investigating the phonetic aspect of language communication and its generalization in the minds of the language users. Phonetics investigates the phonic material of speech (the sounds). The speech sounds are analyzed from two aspectsAspect of the speaker/producerHearer/receiver.The former aspect covers the activity of articulatory organs, the latter the transmission of acoustic entities perceived by the listener and the process of decoding. According to the subject of investigation, phonetics is further subdivided intoi/ genetic/articulatory production of speech soundsii/ acoustic transmission of sounds, acoustic characteristics of speech s oundsiii/ auditory perception of speech soundsPhonology speech sounds from the aspect of their function they fulfill within a linguistic system, how they are organized into systems, how they are utilized in languages and what the relationships among them are.We can divide speech up into segments and we can find great variety in the way these segments are made (their pronunciation differs from speaker to speaker even the same speaker never pronounces the same segment in the same way. But there is an go up set of units as the basis of our speech otherwise we would not be able to understand other speakers of the same language, communication among people would be impossible. These units are called phonemes, and the complete set of these units is called the phonemic system of the language. The phonemes themselves are abstract (the sound excogitations stored in our mental grammar), we do not produce phonemes, we produce sounds or phones. Phonemes are the minimal sequential contrastive units of the phonology of languages, (Catford). contrastive phonemes are contrastive in the sense that they are the bits of sound that distinguish one word from another bit , pit solely by the contrast between the initial consonants /p/ /b/ the two words are distinguished. The bits of sound manifesting these contrasts are phonemes. minimal phonemes are minimal units, because if you take a stretch of speech and chop it up into a sequence of phonologic units, the shortest stretch of speech sounds that functions as a contrastive unit in the buildup of the phonological forms of words is the phoneme.The phonological structure of English, like that of other languages, can be described as a hierarchy of units. The largest, or most inclusive, unit in English is the pitch contour contour or tone-group Jane was here yesterday. We can chop up each tone-unit into smaller units, namely into successive rhythmic units, or feet (the fact that these feet are contrastive, consequence differenti ating units, is demonstrated by the fact that we could divide the utterance into feet differently, and this would convey a slightly different meaning). Next, we can divide each foot into still smaller chunks, namely into a sequence of syllables. Finally, we can divide up each syllable into a sequence of still smaller units and here it is necessary for us to go into phonetic transcription At this point we can do no further chopping. We pick out reached the lowest rank in the phonological hierarchy, the smallest sequential or linear units phonemes. in that respect are no smaller meaning-differentiating units. Sequential following in sequence. Phoneme an abstract unit operating on the level language as a system.Symbols TranscriptionTypes of Transcription1/i/Phonological transcription, phonemic transcriptionThe choice of symbols is limited to one symbol per one phoneme.2/Phonetic transcriptionVery detailed, each single realization of a sound is recorded.The SyllableHuman beings ca nnot produce a sound smaller than a syllable. The syllable seems to be the essential unit of speech segmentation and speech recognition.J. Lavers definition of the phonological syllable is as follows The syllable is a complex unit, made up of nuclear and marginal elements. Nuclear elements are vowels, and marginal elements are consonants.A/ Languages differ in syllable typesThe minimum syllable V (I, Oh)CV (consonantal beginning an onset) (e.g. me) open syllableVC (consonantal end a coda) (e.g. am) closed syllableSome syllables have both onset and coda (e.g. him).The most common type of syllable among the languages of the world is CV. CVC is also common among the languages of the world. English syllables a wide variety of syllable types, both open and closed.B/ Languages also differ on constraints on the segments which can occur at the beginning or end of a syllable. No syllable in E can begin with // // and // are rare. Almost any consonant can occur in syllable-final position, except for /h/, /j/, /w/, /r/ (only in rhotic accents).Syllable types in E Beginning a vowel (see the constraints above), one, two or three consonants. Ending a vowel, one, two, three or four consonants.Syllable structures in EnglishBeginning a vowel zero onset (// rare) a consonant except for //, // having an onset two or more consonants a consonant cluster.C/ Initial two-consonant clustersi/ pre-initial /s/ is followed by one of about 10 initial consonants (p, t, k f m, n l w, j, r) with /l, r, w, j/ a nonpartizan analysis is possible (e.g. slow, sky, swim)ii/ initial (p, t, k b, d, g f, , s, h, v m, n l) followed by a post-initial /l, r, w, j/ (e.g. proud, queen, friend).D/ Initial three-consonant clustersThere is a clear relationship between the two groups/s/ is the pre-initial /p, t, k/ are initial and /l, r, w, j/ are post-initial (e.g. split, square, strike).E/ Final consonant clustersNo final consonant means that there is no coda, i.e. it is an open syllable. One cons onant means that the syllable is closed. Any consonant except for /h/, /w/, /j/, /r/ can occur in syllable-final position.F/ Two-consonant clustersi/ pre-final (m, n, , l, s) is followed by a final (e.g. bend, bench ask)ii/ a final consonant is followed by a post-final /s, z, t, d, / (e.g. fifth. asks, robbed). The post-final consonant often corresponds to a separate morpheme. Pronunciation the release of the first plosive of a plosive + plosive cluster is usually produced without plosion and is therefore practically inaudible.G/ Final three-consonant clustersi/ pre-final + final + post-final (e.g. helped, twelfth)ii/ final + post-final 1 + post-final 2 (e.g. fifths, next)H/ Final four-consonant clustersi/ pre-final + final + post-final 1 + post-final 2 (e.g. twelfths)ii/ final + post-final 1 + post-final 2 + post-final 3 (e.g. sixths).The syllable onset + rhyme/peak + codaDifficulties encountered by foreign learnersUnknown consonant clusters usually two strategies are appliedi/ vow els between the consonants are insertedii/ one of the consonants is deleted.That is simplification of the syllable structure of the E word by making it conform to the pattern of the native languages of the learners. Deletion exists in E but these deletions do not occur randomly.Stress in EnglishThe syllable or syllables which stand out from the the other szllable or szllables of a word are said to be formed, to receive the try.Gimson a stressed syllable the one upon which there is relatively great breath movement and muscular energy.As for perception the stressed syllables are perceived to be more prominent because they are louder, longer, pronounced on the pitch different from that of the other syllables and they contain a vowel sound differing in its quality from neighboring vowels. The most powerful effect is produced by pitch, the length comes second, loudness and quality of the vowel sounds is less important.Types of stress (Kenworthy)Three levels of stress primary, utilit y(prenominal), tertiary are heard in long E wordsi/ when said in closing offii/ the word is in a position in a sentence where it is very strongly stressediii/ full vowels are used. military position of stressEnglish stress isA/ Variable, i.e. the main stress is not tied to any particular syllable (in Slovak it has delimitative function, i.e. denotes word boundaries in E it has distinctive function, i.e. it differentiates the meanings of words)B/ Fixed, i.e. the main stress always falls on a particular syllable in any given wordC/ Mobile, i.e. having become familiar with one form of a word, learners result assume that the stress stays on the same syllable in other forms of the word (or they bequeath assume that prefixes and suffixes make no difference to the placement of the stress) but this is not the case of the E language (e.g. photography photographer photograph advertising advertiser advertisement librarianship librarian library). vocalise Stress RulesWhen considering th e stress placement several factors should be taken into accountthe structure of the word (whether the word in question is a simple or complex)the grammatical category of the word (noun, adjective or verb)the number of the syllables in the wordthe phonological structure of the syllables.1. The structure of the wordSimple word not consisting of more than one grammatical unit morpheme (although this is sometimes difficult to decide)Complex words two major typesi/ words made from a basic stem word with the addition of an affix (derived words) affixes two sorts prefixes and suffixes. They have three possible effects on word stress the affix itself receives the primary stress (i.e. -ee, ese) the affix will not influence the placement of stress, (i.e. -ing the word will be stressed just as if the affix was not there) The stress form on the stem, not on the affix, but it is shifted to different syllable (i.e. magnet magnetic).ii/ compound words made of two (or occasionally more) indep endent E words. There is no clear dividing line between two-word compounds and pairs of words that simply happen to occur together quite frequently.Spelling inconsistency solid (one word, e.g. sunflower) words obscure by a hyphen (e.g. fruit-cake, whistle-blower, cabinet-maker) two words separated by a space (e.g. coffee table, tax inspector, weather forecast).Word stress rules2. The number of the syllables syllable structureTWO-SYLLABLE WORDSVerbs Oo 60%. If the second syllable contains a long vowel/diphthong, or if it ends with more than one consonant the second syllable is stressed (e.g. apply, attract, achieve). If the final syllable contains a short vowel and one/no consonant or the diphthong // the first syllable is stressed (e.g. enter, open, follow).Adjectives follow the verbs (e.g. lovely, even, hollow, divine, correct).Nouns Oo 90%. If the second syllable contains a short vowel, the stress will usually come on the first syllable. (e.g. table, sofa, picture). Otherwis e it will be on the second syllable (e.g. estate, balloon).Adverbs, Prepositions behave like verbs and adjectives (e.g. evenly, correctly).THREE-SYLLABLE WORDSVerbs oOo, ooO. If the last syllable contains a short vowel and ends with not more than one consonant that syllable will be unstressed and the stress will be placed on the preceding/ intermediate syllable (e.g. encounter, determine). If the last syllable contains a long vowel/diphthong, or ends with more than one consonant, that final syllable will be stressed (e.g. entertain, resurrect).Nouns Ooo, oOo. If the final syllable contains a short vowel and the middle syllable contains a short vowel and ends with no more than one consonant, both final and middle syllables will be unstressed and the first syllable will get the stress (e.g. library). If the final consonant contains a short vowel or /u/, it is unstressed if the middle syllable contains a long vowel/diphthong, or it ends with more than one consonant, the middle syllabl e will be stressed (e.g. potato, mimosa, disaster).Adjectives follow the nouns (e.g. derelict, insolent).DERIVED WORDSPrefixes stress rules governed by the same rules as in words without prefixes. Suffixescarrying stress themselves (e.g. -ee, -ese, -eer, -ette)not affecting the stress placement (e.g. -able, -al, -ful, -less)influencing the stress in the stem (e.g. -ive, -ic, -ion, -ious) stress on the penultimate syllable (e.g. words ending in -phy (e.g. photography) -cy (e.g. democracy) -ty (e.g. reliability) -gy (e.g. prodigy) -al (e.g. critical).COMPOUNDSNounsTwo noun elements the first element stressed (e.g. typewriter, suitcase, sunflower).AdjectivesAdjective + -ed the second element is stressed (e.g. bad-tempered) first element a number the second element is stressed (e.g. first-class, five-finger, three-wheeler)Adverbs, Verbs usually final stressed (e.g. ill-treat, down-stream, North-East, half-timbered).Note What a beautiful black bird Look at that big blackbirdStress t ending to go on syllables containing a long vowel/diphthong and /or ending with more than one consonant.3. The grammatical category of the word nouns, adjectives, verbs. Compounds nouns usually stressed on the first element (e.g. summertime, grandfather, silverware, schoolteacher, bathtub). When the second element is a polysyllabic word it retains its stress pattern, but when speaking more rapidly, the stress of the second element may be lost (the secondary stress, e.g. trade exhibition).Some compound nouns late stress exceptionsLate stressFirst element material, ingredient the second element is made of (e.g. plastic cup, jokester sandwich, cherry pie). Compounds containing juice, cake take an other(a) stress (e.g. fruit juice, fruit cake, lemon juice).Names of squares and roads thoroughfares (roads for public traffic, e.g. Walnut Avenue, Cambridge Crescent, Belgrade Square, Oxford Drive). Those containing street, however, have an early stress (e.g. Baker Street).The first e lement identifies a place or a time (e.g. town hall, kitchen window, summer holiday, London transport, April showers).Sentence StressIn sequences (sentence, clause, discourse) not all the words are equally important, which in E is shown by means of sentence stress and sentence focus. Why is it important?As listeners, it is essential that we are able to spot points of importance in the stream of speechAs speakers, we must highlight points in our messages, or E listeners will have difficulty in interpreting what they hear, in deciding how it relates to what has just been said and predicting what the speaker is possibly leading up to. Thus sentence stress and sentence focus are vital for intelligibility. The placement of sentence stress is closely related to the function the word fulfills within a sentence. According to their function the words in E are divided intoContent words/lexical wordsGrammar words/function words/structure words.The former ask the lexical meaning while the latt er are structural markers, denoting grammatical categories and syntactic relations. The classes appear to have physiological and neurological validity. Some brain dishonored persons have greater difficulty in using, understanding or reading content words and structure words (e.g. in inn which witch). Content words normally carry the most of information. They generally have in connected speech the qualitative pattern of their isolate form and therefore retain some measure of qualitative prominence even when no pitch prominence is associated with them and when they are relatively unstressed.Structure words do not carry so much information. They do not have a dictionary meaning in the way we normally expect nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs to have. All structure words

Abolition Of Death Penalty In India

Abolition Of closing Penalty In IndiaMahatma Gandhi, who preached non-violence and through the same was successful in attaining independence for colonial India, utter the above lines. Eye for an eye refers to vengeance which contrasts the Gandhian ideology of non-violence.In contrast, India has decided to uphold the just ab reveal brutal form of penalization last penalisation, which has been abolished by 131 early(a) countries. Tracing the history of abolition of decease penalisation in India, it dates back to 27th January1931, when this issue was brought about in the legislative assembly headed by Shri Gaya Prasad Singh.2Death penalty is one of the oldest forms of punishment, even though the method of execution has evolved over the years. This form of punishment has been prescribed micklestairs the Indian Penal Code, 1860 which introduced the preliminary concepts of wicked law in India. To a layman, dying penalty is selected for offences resembling murder section 302 of IPC. The most recent execution had been that of DhananjoyChatterjee, whose sequel has been examined in detail in our paper. This paper will think the recent trends of abolition of death penalty and evaluate Indias stand on the same. After this, various cases will be discussed to extrapolate the meaning and scope of the term disusedst of rare. Our main case in discussion is that of DhananjoyChatterjee, who was awarded death penalty. This case will get out the restrictive interpretation of rarest of rare term. To sum up, the decide of our paper is to put forward the arguments in favour of abolition of death penalty.RECENT TRENDS OF ABOLOTION OF DEATH PENALTYBan Ki-Moon, Secretary widely distri justed of UN, in 2007 said, I recognize the growing trend in international law and in national practice towards a phasing out of the death penalty.3thither has been a worldwide concern regarding the abolition of death penalty. The UN General Assembly made the first instance towards any much(prenominal) abolition in 1948 by adopting Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). They strongly advocated the concept of right to spirit. Article 3 and 5 of UDHR cater to the inhumane or degrading treatment or punishment. Article 6 states that no one should be disadvantaged of life and the countries, which are still practicing death penalty, sentence must be given for the most serious crime in accordance with the law. India too claims to have retained death penalty on the ground that it will be awarded only in the rarest of rare cases and for special reasons.4Amnesty International reports indicate that a total of 131 countries have abolished death penalty. While 66 other countries have chosen to retain this form of punishment but the number of countries actually executing the punishment is in the minority.5In 2007, the UN General Assembly approved a resolution, which called all the states to tack together a ban on execution with the place of abolishing the death pena lty. This further strengthens the movement against this form of punishment. Forty-eight countries including India opposed countries that voted in favor of it. In set about of the above information India must realize the importance of abolishing death penalty in order to keep up with the rest of the world. It must be unplowed in mind that Indias stand in retaining death penalty is contrary to the international trend but it always seeks for justifiable ground to award such punishments.DHANANJOY CHATTERJEE Alias DHANA v. STATE OF WEST BENGALIn the present case, DhananjoyChatterjee, the accused, raped and murdered a 18 year old school going girl. The Additional session say found him guilty and convicted the accused (i) for an offence nether Section 302 IPC and sentenced him to death, (ii) for an offence under Section 376 IPC and sentenced him to imprisonment for life, and (iii) for the offence under Section 380 IPC, he was sentenced to undergo rigorous imprisonment for five year. T he High woo confirmed the death sentence after which the appeal was filed, and the Supreme butterfly confirmed death sentence again.Justice AS Ananad examined the case in the light of the circumstantial evidence since there were no eyewitnesses and confirmed death penalty. He categorized this case under the rarest of rare cases arguing that it was a cold blooded pre-planned brutal murder, without any provocation, after committing rape on an innocent and defenseless young girl of 18 years. He further says that such a case deserves no other punishment than capital punishment.India has witnessed various heinous crimes but the biggest trouble approach by the courts is whether to categorize a particular murder under the rarest of rare cases. Though the term rarest of rare is complicated to define, but the Supreme Court in Bachhan Singhs explained what constitutes rarest of rare. The Supreme Court discussed the circumstances of such cases. These circumstances include that the murder commit should be extremely brutal, grotesque, diabolical, revolting or dastardly manner so as to arouse intense and extreme indignation of the community, it should be for a motive which evinces total depravity and meanness, murder of a scheduled cast or scheduled tribe- arousing social wrath (not for personal reasons), bride burning/ dowry death, murderer in a dominating position, position of trust or in frame of betrayal of the motherland, where it is enormous in proportion or when the victim is an innocent child, helpless woman, old/infirm person, public figure generally loved and prize by the community.In Panchhi v demesne of Uttar Pradesh, one of the important cases which stated that brutality is not the only factor that determines whether the case will fall under the rarest of rare category and thereby, life imprisonment can be a better substitution rather than commuting death sentence. The court opined-No precariousness brutality looms large in the murders in this case par ticularly of the old and withal the tender age child. It may be that the manner in which a murder was perpetrated may be a ground but not the sole criterion for judging whether the case is one of the rarest of rare cases as indicated in Bachan Singhs case.6In State of Maharashtra v Bharat Fakir Dhiwar, even though the accused was held guilty of murder and rape, but the High court acquitted the accused. Furthermore, the Supreme Court refused to take strong stand on death penalty and awarded life imprisonment. Instead, the accused was awarded with life imprisonment. The facts of the cases are, prima facie, diabolical that the lesser option was to give life imprisonment instead of death sentence.EdigaAnamma v. State of Andhra Pradesh is another landmark supposition which involves death penalty awarded to female criminals. Justice Krishna Iyer on the basis of certain factors handle gender, socio economic background, and age, psychic reversed the punishment from death sentence to life imprisonment. It was laid down that while evaluating the death penalty, the crime committed should not be the sole criterion for determining the crime but various other factors should also be taken into account.The case of SwamyShraddananda and MuraliManohar Mishra v. State of Karnataka is another case which depicts cut back interpretation of rarest of the rare category. Life imprisonment usually of 14 years was extended for the remaining life of the accused. This was the first time that a court move to award life imprisonment by altering the period of punishment.In Santosh Kumar SatishBhushanBariyarvs State of Maharashtra, the accused with three others lured the victim to a particular place with the purpose of confining his movement to ask for ransom. They threatened to kill him if the family did not pay the ransom. Eventually they killed the victim and cut his body into pieces to dispose of at different places. on with Bariyar, the other accused were also arrested and charged under S.302 and S.364B read with S.120B of the IPC. Bariyar was awarded death sentence which was upheld by the high court stating that Bariyar was the protagonist of the act. However, the Supreme Court refused to award death penalty based on the reasoning that the circumstances were not sufficient enough to constitute rarest of the rare case. The court further supported the judgment by saying that the accused were not professional killers, without any criminal history, but the motive of collecting the money had lead them commit the crime. They relied on the theories of punishment and believe that the Bariyar could be reformed and rehabilitated and hence awarded him rigorous life imprisonment. This is a landmark case which is a step closer to the abolition of death penalty in India, hence was hearty received by the abolitionists.7In other words it restricted the scope of rarest of the rare cases. From the facts it can be gauged that the crime committed was extremely grotesque yet t he punishment awarded was not in proportion.Based on the landmark cases and the work done by B.B Pande on capital punishment, well be examining the legal perspectives in support of abolition of death penalty in India. The arguments made in favour of the abolition can be discussed in a thematical framework. In Rajendra Prasad v State of U.P, certain fundamental issues relating to law haveRight to life is the fundamental right as laid down in the constitution. This theme plays an important role in the debate against death penalty. The constitutional arguments as raised by Justice Krishna Iyer in Rajendra Prasad v State of U.P will be reflect an abolitionists perspective. The points raised by Justice Iyer are 1) the deprivation of life under our system is too fundamental to be permitted present on the gravest ground and under the strictest scrutiny if Justice, Dignity, Fair Procedure are creed ally constitutional8. 2) The right to life and to fundamental freedom is deprived when he (a ccused) is hanged to death, is dignity is defiled when his neck is noosed and strangled.93) The judge who sits to decide between death penalty and life sentence must ask himself Is it reasonably required to extinguish his freedom of speech of assembly and association of free-movement, by putting out finally the very flame of life?10he goes into the retrospection of the judge deciding the death penalty and is it reasonable to extinguish to every flame of life out of the accused.114) you cannot be unusually cruel for that spells arbitrariness and violates Article 14.125) through this he is trying to bring to notice that this form of punishment violates article (14) which talk about equality before law such punishments are also in violation of the Preamble which speaks of dignity of the individual.135) you cannot inflict degrading punishment since the preamble speaks of the dignity of the individual. 6) Social Justice, which the preamble and Article 38 highlight as paramount in the g overnance of the country, also has a role to mould the sentence.14Through these arguments put forward by Justice Iyer clearly indicates him to be a believer of abolition of death penalty. Through the issues he wants to highlight the basic rights, one of them being Right to Life which is violated on execution of death penalty. In his argument, he highlights that the death penalty deprives the criminal from right to life and questions if the crime committed is so grave that a constitutional right need to be compromised on? In contrary, all other fundamental rights are given equal importance in India. Such degrading punishments defeat the purpose of Article (14) which talks about equality before law. In other words, this form of punishment can be said to be unconstitutional.Justice Iyer points out to the absence of prudish guidelines and standards in awarding life imprisonment or death sentence in Section. 302 of IPC. This in turn gives over- wide power in matters of life and death. Sections. 303 and 307 prescribe death penalty as the only form of punishment. Section.302 prescribes only one alternative to death penalty i.e. life imprisonment. The basic problem arising here is that the only alternative to death penalty is life imprisonment. So, the question of when and which punishment is left at the discretion of the judges. Another matter complexing the situation is that the punishments under IPC are limited. Therefore, the scope of awarding punishments in brutal and diabolical cases is restricted because of the sections enacted under IPC.Among the prevailing theory of punishments, one of the important factors of death penalty is bullying. This agent of death penalty is given a lot of importance because it has been presumed by the courts that will deter crimes to be committed in the future. This theory is supported by Justice Sen, who argued that the deterrence is generally held to be the most important, although the continuing public demand for retribution cannot be ignored.15It is still believed that through death penalty deterrence can be the factor that refrain a person from committing a crime. However, the statistics shows that this impression about deterrence is proved to be wrong. According to the Indian execration Report of 2007 which states disturbing figures, 19,89,673 are crimes related to IPC.16It also shows that the IPC crime rate in 2007 was 175.1 whereas in 2006 it was 167.7.17These figures clearly contradict the presumptions taken by the courts on deterrence. Thus, it is also stated in the 35th report produced in 1967 the Law Commission took the view that capital punishment acted as a deterrent to crime.18A deeper study of the implications of death penalty gives us a social aspect of this punishment which is not evident otherwise. In this perspective we can observe that the death penalty affects the poor and the helples that are to be protected by the law. The significant role of the law is to protect the people and so ciety by laying down rules for the proper justice. However, the process and the practices implemented till now have been biased specially towards the poor and the helpless. The social inequalities are highlighted through the judgments given in different cases. In DayanidhiBisoi v State of Orissa, the accused was working as a peon which indicates about its weak economic background. Thus, this element is betokening of the wrong judgment executed by the courts.According to the cases stated above, it is evident that the rarest of rare term has been interpreted in a restrictive manner. Even after the guildines laid down by the court in the Bachhan Singh case, the judicial discretion has played an important role in defining the rarest of rare cases. For every offence where death penalty is awarded, the court looks at various aspects of the offence to decide whether it is rare enough to award death penalty. In Rajendra Prasad case, the court defined the parameters for awarding death penalt y. It was further stated that the death penalty must relate to the criminal and not with the crime. In Bariyar case, brutality was not the only factor for determining death sentence for the accused, the court evince on the other aspects like the professional background of the accused as well as his criminal history. In EdigaAnamma case, the female criminals socio-economic background was looked into. Therefore, it can be confidently said that inspite of many death penalties awarded no clear standard has evolved to clear the stand of the courts on rarest of rare term. This gives rise to erroneous judgments which in the past times have taken place in almost seven cases convicting thirteen criminals and awarding them death penalty. Coming to the DhananjoyChatterjees case, in light of the above arguments, the crime or the criminal clearly does not come under the rarest of rare cases. There is a thin line between the rarest of rare and ordinary case but again its judicial discretion that plays the deciding factor.CONCLUSIONVarious arguments have been made in favor of the abolition of death penalty. The purpose of this paper is to bring together the analysis from the landmark cases to infer what constitutes rarest of rare. The judgment in Bariyar can be considered as a significant one because it gave importance to the reformatory and reclamation scheme. The court said that the prosecution has to first prove that the case belong to the rarest of the rare category after which they also have to provide evidence as to why accused was not fit for any kind of reformation. After which, the death sentence could be awarded. It is important for a developing nation like ours to match up to the international standards and do away with the forms of punishment that hinder its progress.We hope that India works towards complete abolition of death penalty

For Money or Love Essay example -- Literary Analysis, Jane Austen

Women of the 1800s where very limited to what they could do in life especially the women of the upper and middle class. They where expected to do nothing more than marry and to marry well. If they could not do this the life that they faced was very grim. It would be a life of spinsterhood and being care for by other family members or working as a governess for some upper class family.Jane Austen in her book Pride and Prejudice shows the reader the important of marrying and hopefully marrying well but also how important it is marry for love. Jane Austen was born in1775 and the world that she grows up in was one that was very limited for women. Jane was very lucky in the fact that her parents knew how important an education was for all children. She was sent to school but she received most of her education at home from the book in her renders library. From David Nokess book Jane Austen a Life he tells us that Jane had determined that whatever her fait might be she would not indulge th e role of enamour female imbecile.(103) and she was not uncoerced to marry someone she did not love. In her book, she shows us objet darty different characters and how they go about the whole game of marriage. at that place are five relationships in the book that we will look at, Mr. and Mrs. Bennet, Mr. and Mrs. Gardiner, Charlotte Lucas and Mr. Collins, Lydia and Wickham, Jane and Bingley, and Elizabeth and Mr. Darcy. Mrs. Bennett is described in the book as being a women of mean understanding, little information, and timid temper. (3) She was a women with five daughters and her goal in life was to see them all married and hopefully married well. In understanding Pride and Prejudice, Debra Teachman suggests that Mrs. Bennet does not have the... ...s not have very many options in life and that by marry him she would bring security to her mother and sisters but she is not willing to marry without being in love. If all she wanted was to marry for money she would have accepted Mr. Darcy first proposal instead of telling him that you were the last man in the world whom I could ever be prevailed on to marry. For Darcy and Elizabeth to fall in love it takes time and the understanding of each other charter ahead they both can look be on their own Pride and Prejudice that they might have.Jane Austen is trying to show us that marriage is more that a business deal and that one should not just look to the good manners or appetence of another. That marriage with love is domed to be wretched and that does not take a lot of money to find happiness. I believe that she put a lot of herself in to the charter Elizabeth.

Odysseus: A Hero Essay -- Greek Gods Odysseus Sophocles Essays

Odysseus A HeroHeroism was not an invention of the Greeks. Yet, through the first hundreds age of their civilization, the Greek literature has already given birth tohighly polished and complex long epics that revolved around heroes. Theseliterature works gave many possibilities of interpretation of heroism. The Greeksillustrated heroism to chase the rules situated down by the gods and goddesses, andthose who obey the rules would gain honor and fame. The Greeks regardedintelligence as one of the highest gifts that wholly heroes must posses. TheGreeks required that all heroes must have courage. Odysseus, one of the heroesof the epic Odyssey standout. He was constantly expected to be a true hero,always obey the rules laid down by the immortals, posses wisdom and courage.The Greeks believed that all heroes must always obey the Guest/ host relationshiprule-- which all guests must treat the hosts with courtesy, and the host musttreat the guests properly-- laid down by the gods and godd esses. Those who didnot obey the rule would be punished severely. Odysseus throughout the epic,demonstrated that he obeyed the Guest/Host relationship rule. Odysseus always pursuit the Guest/Host relationship rule, a characteristic that all heroesmust have according to the Greeks tradition . All heroes must followed therule because if they did not, they would be punished by the immortals, and wouldnot be recognized as heroes. When Odysseus reach the land of the Cyclops race.Odysseus decided to pick his best men, goods offered as gifts, and headed towarda Cyclopss cave. When his men dictum cheese, pens, and lamb on lying on the racks,they pleading to Odysseus, Why not take these cheeses, get them stowed, comeback, throw all the pens, and make a contain for it? Well drive thekids and lambsaboard. We say put out again on good salt water Odysseus pink-slipped thesuggestion, I wished to see the cave man, and what he had to offer. Odysseusdismissed the suggestion of his men, and choos e to wait to greet the Cyclopswith the gifts as in the custom of the Guest/Host relationship rule. Thoseactions and sayings showed that Odysseus was always following Guest/Hostrelationship rule, an example for his men to look up to. Odysseuss actionsspoke for his character. He posses the characteristic that meets the criteriaof always obeying the rules... ...Throughout the epic, Odysseus was a hero. He had indeed pre-eminent qualitiesand much that were beyond the capacity of normal men. It was when problemscome that these heroic traits emerged. When his men asked Odysseus to steal thegoods from the Cyclops, which break the rule of Guest/Host relationship, herefused. He showed that he always obey the rules laid down by the immortals.When his men were turned into swine by the goddess Circe, he made Circe swore toreversed her action in trade for him to make love to her. He showed cunning.When Circe told him about Scylla and her unforgiving power, he asked how tofight Scylla to help hi s men avoid horrible deaths. He showed courage. We knowhim less from what he thought, which was seldom revealed, than by what he saysand did, and his actions follow naturally from his characteristics. If thecunning of Odysseus is mentioned more than his courage , it was his courage thatgets him into the scrapes from which his cunning had to deliver him. Odysseushad the all the qualities that the Greek tradition required of all heroes, whichwere obey the rules of gods, posses intelligence, and displayed courage. Hewas a hero.

Life After Death :: essays research papers

What is going to happen to us when we leave behinding die? Some mess never considered what it could happen to them after life. For many people, death is a redoubtable event because they do not know what to expect after their death. However, other persons, such(prenominal) as religious people are conscious of what to expect after their death because of their beliefs. Each religion has different ideas and different ways of looking life. Death, therefore, is viewed by different religions in many ways. Although, different religions have a distinct conception of death, they all have something in common they all give promise to people. Among all different religions in the world, four of the most common geniuss - Catholic, Jewish, Islamic, and Hindu- view death in different ways. One way in which death usher out be viewed comes across the Catholic religion. The Catholic believers look life after death in a prospective of three different worlds, such as Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise ac cording to the deeds committed during life. If a person during his or her lifetime committed any sins, this persons next world will be the Hell. The traditional view in which people refer to hell can be found in the book written by Dante Alighieri, La Divina Commedia. The book states that the formation of Hell was given by the crash of Lucifer (the angel that wanted to be better than God) from the sky onto the earth. Crashing on the Earth in Jerusalem, his head formed an upside down cone inside the Earth. This is where is located the Hell. In the Hell, people pay for their sins with different penitences (12-13). For instance, a person that committed homicide will freeze in a lake frozen by the breath of Satan (XXXIV canto). If a person during his or her life commits any sins but asks for forgiveness, then he or she will go to the Purgatory. The purgatory is represented by an island with a mountain (23). One source states that Purgatory is very similar to Hell the main difference is that one will eventually be released from torture. The someones that go in the Purgatory are tortured with fire. These souls remain in purgatory until they become sufficiently purified to enter heaven(2). For example, if a soul in the purgatory asks for forgiveness and pays the punition with some tests, the soul will be released and moved immediately to Heaven (2).

Outcry Against Conformity in Whos afraid of Virginia Woolf? Essay

Outcry Against Conformity in Whos afraid of Virginia Woolf? Whos afraid of Virginia Woolf? may be viewed as a criticism of American nightclub in the 1960s. Edward Albee proverb the responsibility of the writer...to be a sort of demonic social critic thus the play became a reaction against the incantationary plays of its time. Two lines from the play are straight off lifted from the works which Albee is mocking Flores para los muertos is from A Streetcar named Desire and Marthas speech - Awww, tis the refuge we take... - is from a play by Eugene ONeill. Both of these playwrights sanction illusion in the face of reality Virginia Woolf is said to be an elaborate metaphor for the willing substitution of fantasy for reality, the destructive and dangerous infantilising of the imagination and the moral being by fear. Albee saw society as too willing to conform and adjust itself morally in order to benefit and succeed. Georges attempts to escape from such a society result in his hiding in history and thus him and break away are no better than each other. George has to resist the totalitarian - defend Berlin - in Nick but his attempts to defend Western civilisation against its sex- and success-orientated assailants...are too closely centred on his scrotum. The setting - New Carthage - of the alcohol-sodden gathering is significant in itself. The original Carthage was founded in the ninth century BC and it was razed to the ground in 146AD, when it collapsed under the weight of its own power. It is thus being likened to the America of the 1960s where, again, money and power provided the principal(prenominal) axels for behaviour and superseded the values of culture. As Ni... ...tack on society. By referring to well known contemporary texts, Albee mocks the attitudes that their works sanction. The characters are created as before and after pictures of the results of relationships based in delusion, with clear links to moments in history acting as sounding boards for each others thoughts. Their intoxicated states allow, for the first time in a long while, for their current feelings and motives to be revealed, and for all the secrets and lies that have formed the keystones to their marriages to be removed finally allowing a true test of their strength. Unsurprisingly, what is left very quickly collapses a exemplar to others and a wake-up-call to society. Whos Afraid of Virginia Woolf? is an outcry against the thoughtlessness and conforming nature of Western culture and an attack on those who not only live, but sanction, such a lifestyle.

The Disappearance of Native Americans in California Essay -- Demograph

To discover, understand, and encounter the cultures and intricate natures of the atomic number 20 Indian people, it is essential to search the past Nancy Wahl. Tracing back in atomic number 20 history, Spanish explorers, commanded by Juan Rodrguez Cabrillo, found the tip of what is now Baja California in the year 1533 and named it California after a mythical island in a popular Spanish novel. It is evident that from the time Spanish monarchs set foot in California, the world as primeval Americans knew it was never the same again. The late 1700s initiated and mark the colonization of Spaniards in the Golden State which in turn provoked the massive persecution and extermination of autochthonic American population as well as the disappearance of primordial heritage and culture. As a result, the recurring despairs and adversities of the Indian population began. Professor Edward D. Castillo expresses in his article California Indian History that California Indians have been the mos t unfortunate and the least understood of all the Native American tribes in the nation. They were at once probably the most contented and happy race on the continent, in proportion to their capacities for enjoyment, and they have been more miserably corrupted and destroyed than any some other tribes within the union (Castillo, www.nahc.ca.gov/califindian). They had the largest population, and resided in the most lovely and naturally productive lands but as we have learned, they were swept away with a most surly and cruel extermination. Epidemic diseases brought to the put forward by Spanish colonists and missionaries in the late 1700s to the early 1800s, turned out to be the most powerful and discreet rule to surmount Native American population. The impact of the missionarie... ...populated state in the nation and is recognized as one of the wealthiest states, Native Americans are still marginalized in a third world existence, becoming the most disadvantaged and miserable m inority living in California. Works CitedCastillo, Edward D. Short Overview of California Indian History. California Native Americans Heritage Commission. April 12, 2012. Paddison, Joshua. Native Americans. Calisphere University of California. April 12, 2012. Viola, Herman. California Studies History-Social Science, Grade 4. Californio Lands. Houghton Mifflin, 2007. 214-217.Wahl, Nancy Hodges. Native Americans Travel through Timeon Hwy 49. Historic Hwy 49. April 14, 2012. The Disappearance of Native Americans in California Essay -- DemographTo discover, understand, and encounter the cultures and intricate natures of the California Indian people, it is necessary to search the past Nancy Wahl. Tracing back in California history, Spanish explorers, commanded by Juan Rodrguez Cabrillo, found the tip of what is now Baja California in the year 1533 and named it California after a mythical island in a popular Spanish novel. It is evident that from the time Spanish monarch s set foot in California, the world as Native Americans knew it was never the same again. The late 1700s initiated and marked the colonization of Spaniards in the Golden State which in turn provoked the massive persecution and extermination of Native American population as well as the disappearance of Native heritage and culture. As a result, the recurring despairs and adversities of the Indian population began. Professor Edward D. Castillo expresses in his article California Indian History that California Indians have been the most unfortunate and the least understood of all the Native American tribes in the nation. They were once probably the most contented and happy race on the continent, in proportion to their capacities for enjoyment, and they have been more miserably corrupted and destroyed than any other tribes within the union (Castillo, www.nahc.ca.gov/califindian). They had the largest population, and resided in the most pleasant and naturally productive lands but as we h ave learned, they were swept away with a most vile and cruel extermination. Epidemic diseases brought to the state by Spanish colonists and missionaries in the late 1700s to the early 1800s, turned out to be the most powerful and discreet method to surmount Native American population. The impact of the missionarie... ...populated state in the nation and is recognized as one of the wealthiest states, Native Americans are still marginalized in a third world existence, becoming the most underprivileged and miserable minority living in California. Works CitedCastillo, Edward D. Short Overview of California Indian History. California Native Americans Heritage Commission. April 12, 2012. Paddison, Joshua. Native Americans. Calisphere University of California. April 12, 2012. Viola, Herman. California Studies History-Social Science, Grade 4. Californio Lands. Houghton Mifflin, 2007. 214-217.Wahl, Nancy Hodges. Native Americans Travel through Timeon Hwy 49. Historic Hwy 49. April 14, 2012 .